Discuss the neurocircuitry of impulsive-compulsive disorders. For this discussion, address how an impulsive act can become a compulsive act. Compare and contrast obesity as an impulsive-compulsive disorder and impulsive-compulsive disorders of behavior. Compare and contrast nicotine and alcohol addictions. For this discussion, emphasize the mechanism of action, receptors, and any pathways involved.

Neurocircuitry of Impulsive Both popular and scientific conceptualizations of addiction place a significant emphasis on impulsivity and compulsivity .A quick action that is initiated without consideration of its repercussions is referred to as impulsive behaviour. The word impulsive comes from the Latin impulsus, which means "tending to propel or driven along." An impulsive action may be perceived as being carried out spontaneously in response to feelings or uncontrollable urges, and it may be followed by regret, remorse, or humiliation. Externally, impulsivity may look as hasty, arbitrary, or based on whims, and it may prioritise short-term advantages above long-term results. Compulsive behaviour is described as an activity that stems from or is connected to an irresistible impulse, where irresistibility is operationalized as conduct that persists despite negative or wrong outcomes. The word compulsive derives from the Latin word compuls-, which means "driven or pushed." A compulsive activity is frequently perceived as being out of one's control and can even be obtrusive, undesired, and ego-damaging when it is being performed. From a historical standpoint, the concepts of impulsivity and compulsivity have lately attracted more cross-cultural attention, most of which has been concentrated on how they relate to addictive behaviour. Over time, compulsive behaviours (driven activities without arousal) may develop from impulsive behaviours and vice versa (reinforced habits). Impulsivity and compulsivity are caused by a variety of variables, including genes, gender, environment, mental problems, and drug addiction. Impulsive people may have a propensity for quick, unexpected reactions to food, which may result in overeating and ultimately obesity. However, there are few and inconsistent results on the relationship between impulsivity, as determined by the BIS-11, and weight status. According to a study, participants who are overweight are much more impulsive than those who are of normal weight . Other research, however, revealed no discernible difference in impulsivity between participants who were obese and those who were normal weight and no connection between impulsivity and BMI . It should be highlighted that these earlier research used limited and focused sample sizes. These variations might be explained by differences in these populations' characteristics, such as eating disorders or sociodemographic and lifestyle traits. The mental disease known as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterised by recurrent, unwanted thoughts or feelings (obsessions) or the impulse to do certain repetitive behaviours (compulsions). Obsessions and compulsions are both common in some people. OCD is not characterised by behaviours like nail-biting or negative thinking. The neuropsychiatric illnesses known as impulsive compulsive spectrum disorders (ICSDs) include a number of abnormal behaviours with a pathophysiological basis related to improper impulses and/or a deficiency in impulse control. ICSDs, which include eating disorders, pathological gambling, obsessive/compulsive disorder, Tourette syndrome, drug addiction, and impulse control disorders in Parkinson's disease, pose a significant burden on our communities. Since each of these ICSDs is a distinct nosological entity with unique clinical components and symptoms, it is clear that maladaptive impulse control may take many different aberrant psychological and behavioural forms. Alcohol and drug addiction is accompanied with negative affect, negative urgency, attentional ("decreased capacity to focus"), and motor ("doing without thinking") impulsivity. In fact, negative urgency may serve as an endophenotype for clinical diseases such as alcohol and cigarette addiction . Negative emotional states have been particularly linked to negative urgency. Under this emotional dysregulation, negative reinforcement theory, negative urgency is seen as a factor in addictive behaviour because: (1) Negative emotional episodes (such as irritability, anxiety, and depression) associated with the withdrawal/negative affect stage may represent or give rise to intense urges (such as attempts to self-medicate) that are moderated or mediated by negative urgency; and (2) The impairment of executive control associated with negative urgency may decrease the capacity to resist urges to pursue substance use in the preoccupation/anticipation stage such that be less able to resist urges to do so (compulsively). Although there is a lack of neurobiological evidence for negative urgency, it has been theorised that negative urgency is a result of problems with "top-down" cortical regulation of both basal ganglia and extended amygdala activity . We simply quickly touch on the most important findings here because this issue was only recently examined in detail. The majority, if not all, of the data come from imaging investigations of people. Deficient top-down control has been hypothesized to represent a loss of control over pathological habits that involve basal ganglia and extended amygdala processing as well as increased attention to, incentive salience of, or cognitive resource interference from emotion- evoking stimuli. Therefore, there is less inhibitory control over potentially harmful behaviours and habits when there is negative emotion present, with the latter representing more behavioural regulation by the dorsolateral striatum. These biases may be caused by changes in the orbitofrontal cortex's (OFC's) or ventromedial prefrontal cortex's (vmPFC's) connections to the basal ganglia and extended amygdala. References : Koob G. F. and Ahmed S. H. (2005). An allostatic decline in reward function is the foundation of a negative reinforcement hypothesis for the development of drug addiction. 10.1007/s00213-005-2180-z. Psychopharmacology 180, 473-490. Verdejo-Garcia A., Moreno-López L., Albein-Urios N., Martinez-Gonzalez J. M., and Lozano (2013). The co-occurrence of personality problems and cocaine dependency is characterised by negative urgency, disinhibition, and decreased grey matter in the temporal pole. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.008 Drug Alcohol Depend. 132, 231-237 G. F. Alheid and L. Heimer (1988). New insights into the striatopallidal, amygdaloid, and corticopetal regions of the substantia innominata, which are particularly relevant to neuropsychiatric diseases. 10.1016/0306-4522(88)90217-5. Neuroscience 27, 1–39. Ansquer, S., Belin-Rauscent, A., Dugast, T., I. Benatru, A. C. Mar, et al (2014). In highly impulsive rats, atomoxetine reduces susceptibility to compulsivity development. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.031 Biol. Psychiatry 75, 825-832 Lembo J., Anthenien A. M., and Neighbors C. (2017). The connection between alcohol intake and negative urgency is mediated by drinking intentions and alcohol result expectations. 66, 101–107; 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.11.009; Addict. Behav.

Discuss the neurocircuitry of impulsive-compulsive disorders. For this discussion, address how an impulsive act can become a compulsive act. Compare and contrast obesity as an impulsive-compulsive disorder and impulsive-compulsive disorders of

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