Assignment 2 Instructions Prepare a written paper in response to the following prompts: Which theory of criminality seems most appropriate to you? Why? Which organized crime hierarchy would most likely be used, based on the theory selected and why? Provide specific support for your argument through online research. Once you complete Assignment 2, submit it to this dropbox Personal notations: APA; In-text citations; Reference page; 320 word minimum; 2 Outside resources required; consider points of discussion. Al will be checked by "TURNITIN" and "https://www.zerogpt.com/" so will plagiarism. Complete all questions as well as WHY? This assignment calls for opinions. Assignments Each week will have one short written paper assignment with prompts/questions to answer. Assignments must be completed using Microsoft Word in 1-2 pages, double- spaced with proper in-text citations and references provided on a separate page. Completed Assignments should be submitted to the appropriate Dropbox folder. Proper APA, Reference page. In-text Citations with page numbers. Textbook Citation: Lyman, M. D., & Potter, G. (2018). Organized Crime (7th ed.). Pearson Education (US). https://ccis.vitalsource.com/books/9780134831763 Textbook excerpts Including required page numbers: Page 15-19: Organized Crime: Attributes, Characteristics, and Structure Most people think of crime as specific acts committed by individuals. Certainly, the criminal law focuses on individuals. Individuals are arrested. Individuals are tried and convicted, not organizations or groups. Individuals are assigned some kind of punishment. Even in conspiracy trials, it is the individual act of entering into the conspiracy that is in dispute. For the most part criminology deals with individuals. Theories focus on the individual offender and his or her social circumstances, psychological problems, or medical maladies. The crimes, which get the most attention primarily, involve individual offenders and victims (murder, rape, robbery). Organized crime is a very different matter. It involves well-organized groups involved in a variety of criminal activities for the purpose of accumulating money or power. To understand organized crime we have to get away from the view of the individual perpetrator. Organizational structure, the way in which individuals join together and coordinate their activities to engage in criminal enterprises, becomes the vital consideration. Page 15-19: Forms of Organized Crime In 2002, the United Nations published the results of a major international study attempting to delineate the various organizational forms utilized by organized crime groups worldwide. The UN research looked at organized crime groups in 16 separate countries and came up with an organizational typology that defines the various organizational forms found in these countries. The UN research delineated five ideal types of criminal organizations, ranging from the most traditional forms of organized crime to newer, modern organized networks (United Nations 2002): Standard hierarchy Regional hierarchy Clustered hierarchy Core group Criminal network These are, of course, ideal types. Not all criminal organizations will conform precisely to a specific type, but most will have the predominant characteristics of one of these types. The first three types, delineating hierarchical structures, are closest to the traditional forms of organized crime we have been discussing, and the last two, core groups and criminal networks, are closest to the forms of organization we can expect to be most prevalent in an emerging global economy. Standard Hierarchy A standard hierarchy is a single organized crime group, usually led by a single powerful individual. These organizations have clearly defined roles, a readily identified chain of command, and a hierarchy that is designed to provide a strong system of internal discipline. Standard hierarchies usually have a name by which they are known and often have a strong ethnic or social identity. For example, members usually come from the same ethnic background (e.g., Albanians, Russians, Italians) or a similar background experience (e.g., prison gangs). Violence is an integral tool of both legal and illegal businesses, and these groups usually operate in clearly defined geographical areas. Regional Hierarchy Regional hierarchies are also tightly controlled groups with strong systems of internal discipline and clearly defined roles and lines of authority. The major difference between these groups and standard hierarchies is that considerable autonomy and independence are granted to local organizations operating within the criminal organization. They have a single leadership structure and a clear line of command. They tend to be regional in their geographic scope and engage in multiple illegal activities. Like standard hierarchies, regional hierarchies have a strong social or ethnic identity and employ violence as a primary means of maintaining discipline and resolving disputes. Page 22: Clustered Hierarchy A clustered hierarchy is an organized crime group that involves a number of smaller organized crime groups that coordinate their activities and enterprises. Clustered hierarchies consist of a number of criminal groups that have established an arrangement of managing their respective activities in a coordinated manner. As the organization develops, the cluster develops a stronger identity for members than the smaller groups in which they are actual participants. Page 23: Core Group One of the most important emerging forms of organized crime readily adapted to conducting enterprise in a global economy is the core group. A core group is an unstructured group of organized criminals surrounded by a larger network of individuals engaged in serious criminal activity. Unlike hierarchies, a core group has a flat organizational structure in which power is shared by all participants. It consists of a small number of individuals, which makes it much easier to avoid law enforcement interference and maintain internal security. Group identity is maintained through their illegal activities, but no strong social or ethnic identities are associated with core group organizations. Rarely is such an organization known by a specific name or, for that matter, known to the general public or law enforcement at all. Page 24: Criminal Network The criminal network represents the cutting edge of organized crime in the twenty-first century. Although localized crime networks have existed throughout history, their utility in a global economy makes them, along with core groups, the most efficient forms of criminal organizations for the new millennium. Criminal networks are loosely organized, highly adaptable, very fluid networks of individual participants who organize themselves around an ongoing criminal enterprise. The membership, shape, and organization of a network are defined by those individuals' participation in it at any given time. Individual attributes, such as specific skills, financial resources, political connections, and the like, determine the importance of network participants. There is no sense of ethnic or social identity-only personal loyalties to the enterprise itself. Networks are created, re- formed, and initiated around a series of continuing criminal projects. Individuals come and go from the network, so the organization is constantly re-forming itself from project to project. Criminal networks maintain a very low public profile and almost never identify themselves by any name or attribution other than the participation of the individuals in the network itself. Page 65: Rational Choice Theory When we consider theories of organized criminal behavior discussed in this chapter, we consider why some people conduct themselves in a manner that potentially entails risk, personal injury, arrest, or imprisonment. Some theorists believe that regardless of the reason for committing crime, the decision to do so is a rational choice made after weighing the benefits and consequences of the action. Examples of this theory include a man who discovers that his wife is having an affair and chooses to kill her, her lover, or both; the bank teller who is experiencing personal financial difficulty and decides to embezzle funds from the bank to substantially increase her earnings; and an inner-city youth who decides that social opportunities are minimal and that it would be easier to make money by dealing crack cocaine. These are just a few scenarios in which people make a reasoned choice and exemplify a theory of criminality known as rational choice. Rational choice theory first emerged in the mid-eighteenth century and was originally referred to as classical theory. It was developed by the classical school of criminology through the writings of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. It perceived people as free agents who are able to make rational choices in virtually all aspects of their lives. This school views organized crime members as possessing free will and as being able to make rational decisions regarding their involvement in crime and wrongdoing. Policies stemming from this approach dictate dealing harshly and quickly with offenders in an effort to deter them from making such choices again. Little consideration was given to the offenders' backgrounds or the circumstances surrounding the crimes that they committed. Because offenders were considered to be rational thinkers, punishment for their crimes was based on the pleasure-pain principle. This meant that the pain of punishment for the offense must outweigh the pleasure the offender received as a reward for committing the crime. So, in theory, the rational offender would realize that it was not worth it to commit the criminal act in the first place. Beccaria also espoused the idea that the punishment should fit the crime. Rational choice theory suggests that people who commit crimes do so after considering the risks of detection and punishment for the crimes (risk assessment), as well as the rewards (personal, financial, etc.) of completing these acts successfully. On the other hand, persons who do not commit crime decide that completing the act successfully is too risky or not worth the benefits. It should be noted that crimes are committed for an array of reasons, which include economic, psychological, physical, social, and even political motivations. In the context of organized crime, financial incentives clearly play an important role in the person's decision to engage in crime. However, it is likely that dynamics other than rational choice can cause persons to commit a crime; for example, although an enforcer for a syndicate has financial interests in his organizational role, he could also act because of the need for acceptance, respect, and trust by other members of the organization. It is likely that the enforcer understands that his actions could result in his arrest and possible imprisonment. However, because he believes that his criminal talents or the resources of the organization will aid him in avoiding detection, he feels confident that the crime can be carried out with minimal risk. Page 82: Points of Discussion