Application Assignment #4 Instructions Arizona State University School of Criminology and Criminal Justice CRJ 511 Applied Data Analysis in Criminal Justice This assignment covers material from chapters 9 and 12: Categorical Data and the Chi-Square Statistic; Correlation. Please answer each question with complete sentences. Please use 12 point Times New Roman font and 1-inch margins. This assignment will be checked using anti- plagiarism software and returned to your instructor with an originality report. Article 1: Please provide the full reference of the article you have found and read. Please put down the search terms you have used. You could use the same article you have used for the other application assignments if appropriate. I searched: chi-square test crime. The selected article should contain Chi-square test(s) in a table or in text. If this article contains more than one Chi-square test, pick one and then answer the following questions. ARTICLE: Low-Level Violence in Schools: Is There an Association Between School Safety Measures and Peer Victimization? Blosnich, John; Bossarte, Robert Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd The Journal of school health, 2011-02, Vol.81 (2), p.107-113 JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH RESEARCH ARTICLE Low-Level Violence in Schools: Is There an Association Between School Safety Measures and Peer Victimization? JOHN BLOSNICH, MPH* ROBERT BOSSARTE, PhDb ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Low-level violent behavior, particularly school bullying, remains a critical public health issue that has been associated with negative mental and physical health outcomes. School-based prevention programs, while a valuable line of defense to stave off bullying, have shown inconsistent results in terms of decreasing bullying. This study explored whether school safety measures (eg, security guards, cameras, ID badges) were associated with student reports of different forms of peer victimization related to bullying. METHODS: Data came from the 2007 School Crime Supplement of the National Crime Victimization Survey. Chi-square tests of independence were used to examine differences among categorical variables. Logistic regression models were constructed for the peer victimization outcomes. A count variable was constructed among the bullying outcomes (0-7) with which a Poisson regression model was constructed to analyze school safety measures' impacts on degree of victimization. RESULTS: Of the various school safety measures, only having adults in hallways resulted in a significant reduction in odds of being physically bullied, having property vandalized, or having rumors spread. In terms of degree of victimization, having adults and/or staff supervising hallways was associated with an approximate 26% decrease in students experiencing an additional form of peer victimization. Received on August 24, 2009 Accepted on June 29, 2010 America Check for updates ASHA School dr Association CONCLUSIONS: Results indicated that school safety measures overall were not associated with decreased reports of low-level violent behaviors related to bullying. More research is needed to further explore what best promotes comprehensive safety in schools. Keywords: violence; bullying: preventive measures; schools. Citation: Blosnich J, Bossarte R. Low-level violence in schools: is there an association between school safety measures and peer victimization? J Sch Health. 2011; 81: 107-113- Peer Deer victimization and bullying behaviors among school-age children and adolescents continue to gain attention as a significant public health problem with consequences for both mental and physical well- being. Dupper and Meyer-Adams¹ outlined bullying as just one area of low-level violent behaviors that are often overshadowed by both conciliatory sociocultural beliefs (eg, "boys will be boys") and high-level violent behaviors (eg, weapon-carrying, school-associated homicide and suicides, gang-related activity, etc). Bullying can be viewed as a specific form of peer victimization although the use of a "standard" definition of bullying in terms of surveillance has Journal of School Health February 2011, Vol. 81, No. 2. . been an issue in research.² While there is no standardized definition of bullying, researchers often cite the Olweus³ definition, which outlines critical components of bullying to distinguish it from other forms of peer victimization: victims are exposed repeatedly and over time to negative actions from one or more other students; there is intent to distress or harm the victim; and a power imbalance often exists (typically physical, but can may also be a social imbalance). It is also important to note that negative actions can range from nonverbal (ie, ostracism) to overt (ie, punching, throwing objects, vandalism of property). Two decades of research on bullying behavior has found that it is, indeed, a prevalent *Doctoral Candidate (blosnich@hscwuedu), Department of Community Medicine, West Virginia University, PO Box 91 90, Morgantown, WW25505. Assistant Professor, (robert_bossarte@umc.rochester.edu), Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester, 300 Crittenden Blvd, Box PSYCH, Rochester, NY 14262. Address correspondence to John Blosnich, Doctoral Candidate, (blosnich@hscuedu), Department of Community Medicine, West Virginia University, P.Q. Bax 91 90, Morgantown, WWV 25506 Ⓒ2011, American School Health Association. 107 1. What relationship is being tested in this Chi-square test? [2pts] Why is Chi-square test appropriate? [2pts] 2. How would you define this Chi-square test (e.g., 2x2, 2x3, etc.)? [1pt] 3. Interpret the result of this Chi-square test. In other words, did the authors find significant relationships between variables? Which relationships are significant, if any? What do these significant relationships tell you? [5pts] Article 2: Please provide the full reference of the article you have found and read. Please put down the search terms you have used. You could use the same article you have used for the other application assignments if appropriate. I searched: bivariate correlation crime. ARTICLE Climate Change, Temperature, and Homicide: A Tale of Two Cities, 1895–2015 Lynch, Michael J.; Stretesky, Paul B. ; Long, Michael A. BOSTON: American Meteorological Society Weather, climate, and society, 2020-01, Vol.12 (1), p.171-181 JANUARY 2020 LYNCH ET AL. Climate Change, Temperature, and Homicide: A Tale of Two Cities, 1895-2015 MICHAEL J. LYNCH Department of Criminology and Associate Faculty, Patel School of Global Sustainability, and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida PAUL B. STRETESKY Department of Social Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom MICHAEL A. LONG Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma (Manuscript received 11 June 2019, in final form 3 December 2019) ABS RACT It has been argued that the temperature increase caused by anthropogenic climate change will produce a significant increase in violent crime. Support for that prediction is often based on statistical analyses of seasonal temperature and crime data cycles across days, months, and quarters and sometimes on large geo graphic areas. Within-year temperature changes are very large, however, relative to the 30-yr temperature increases employed to measure climate change. In addition, because temperature trends associated with climate change vary geographically, analyses should employ small geographic units for which temperature changes are measured over yearly intervals and for long periods of time. To address these conditions, this study examined the long-term temperature-crime association for homicides in New York and London for 1895-2015. Consistent with previous studies examining seasonal weather and crime patterns, we found a positive correlation between annual homicide rates and temperature, but only at the bivariate level. This relationship became statistically insignificant in both New York and London when gross domestic product is controlled. Moreover, the bivariate relationship between temperature and homicide is statistically insignifi cant when correcting for nonstationarity. Thus, it does not appear that climate change has led to higher rates of homicide in New York and London over the long term. These nonfindings are important because they suggest that studies of climate change and violence might do well to consider alternative mechanisms that mediate the relationship between climate change and violence. 1. Introduction Research on the social impact of anthropogenic cli- mate change suggests that long-term temperature in- creases could contribute 35000 murders to the U.S. crime rate over the next 90 years (Ranson 2014). This finding and similar empirical studies are attracting sig- nificant attention among criminologists (Agnew 2012; Pease and Farrell 2011; White 2016). Agnew (2012), for example, argued that climate change might affect the temperature-crime relationship through several mecha- nisms, producing more crime in the future. Many studies Corresponding author: Michael A. Long, michael.long@ okstate.edu 171 address the temperature-crime association using sea- sonality analysis, that is, by examining the temperature- crime relationship within years or across months (Andresen and Malleson 2013; Cohn and Rotton 2000; Mares 2013; McDowall and Curtis 2015; Ranson 2014), made from those results is that seasonal cycles can be or over short periods of time. One of the assumptions generalized to suggest what might happen to crime during longer-term climate change-temperature cycles. Climate change cycles, however, occur over decades, and than the temperature change found within annual cycles. involve much smaller changes in temperature over time Reflecting this observation, the World Meteorological Association established the now widely accepted stan- dard for assessing climate change effects as including DOI: 10.1175/WCAS-D-19-0068.1 Ⓒ2020 American Meteorological Society. For information regarding reuse of this content and general copyright information, consult the AMS Copyright Policy (www.ametsoc.org/PUBSReuseLicenses). Brought to you by University of Maryland, McKeldin Library | Unauthenticated | Downloaded 82/28/24 11:17 AM UTC 1. Answer the following questions about the correlations based on the table that the authors present bivariate correlations: a. Which is the strongest correlation in the entire table? Be sure to include the value of the correlation and describe the correlation (which variables are correlated). [2pts] b. Which is the weakest correlation in the entire table? Be sure to include the value of the correlation and describe the correlation (which variables are correlated). [2pts] c. Which variable(s) are consistently positively correlated with the criminological term you are interested in (e.g., crime, delinquency, sentencing length, etc.)? Interpret one positive relationship in sentence form (in the form of, as X increases, what happens to Y). [2pts] d. Which variable(s) are consistently negatively correlated with the criminological term you are interested in (e.g., crime, delinquency, sentencing length, etc.)? Interpret one negative relationship in sentence form (in the form of, as X increases, what happens to Y). [2pts] 2. When researchers wish to report significant findings within a table, they often use asterisks. At the bottom of the table that presents bivariate correlations, you can see the note: *p<.05 for example. This note means that the authors performed a significance test on the correlations to determine if they had significant findings. They are telling us that all of the correlations with asterisks next to them were significant at the .05 alpha level. Using this information, answer the following questions about the correlations presented in the tables. a. Are there any correlations that are statistically significant? Be sure to include the value of the correlations and describe the correlation (which variables are correlated). [3pts] b. In this table, which variable(s) consistently demonstrate significant correlations with the criminological term you are interested in (e.g., crime, delinquency, sentencing length, etc.)? What do these significant correlations tell you? [4pts]