International Research and Review: Journal of Phi Beta Delta Honor Society for International Scholars Publication URL: http://www.phibetadelta.org/publications.php The Role of Study-Abroad Students in Cultural Diplomacy: Toward an International Education as

Soft Action Madalina Akli, Ph.D. Rice University Abstract Volume 2, Issue 1, Fall 2012 ISSN: 2167-8669 This paper argues that study-abroad students should be at the center of cultural diplomacy. It recognizes that students can engage in soft action to establish intercultural dialogue. They develop and sustain relationships with people from host countries through cultural immersion and education. Study-abroad students are encouraged to proactively claim their cultural diplomacy role, and thereby cause a shift from formal soft power, traditionally concentrated in embassies and the diplomatic corps, to informal soft action in daily life abroad. With the recent development of a plethora of study-abroad opportunities, soft power can be re-configured by students and educators who cross national borders. Consequently, they are the potential agents of a paradigm shift regarding cultural diplomacy and international education: they are today's new unofficial cultural diplomats. Key words: international education, study abroad, student cultural ambassadors, cultural diplomacy, soft action A Brief Historical Overview of U.S. International Education: A Diversity of Rationales and Purposes From a historical perspective, the development of international education from 1945 to 1970, although dynamic, was unsteady and underpinned by a diversity of rationales and purposes. The relationship between international education and national policy has historically been prone to a lack of consistent objectives and therefore, to confusion. McAllister-Grande describes the euphoria about international education during the immediate post-war period, which is considered to be the “birth" of international education, and presents evidence for divergent rationales for it "as either based upon national defense/security and/or idealized notion of world peace" (2008, p. 4). He shows that the bifurcation between these two opposing directions has existed since the Morrill Committee's report, The University and World Affairs (1961), which underscored conflicting views on the functions of international education: one emphasized higher education's direct impact on national development and foreign policy, and the other reinforced the relationship between the university and its educational mission: 32 The Role of Study Abroad Students in Cultural Diplomacy Akli One the one hand are those who, feeling keenly a grave sense of national urgency, would have the government tell the university how they (sic) must serve the new and pressing needs of the nation in the world affairs. On the other hand are those who, cherishing the university's ancient tradition and spirit of scholarship, contend that the university's major contributions to world affairs should come mainly as a byproduct of its scholarship. If pressed to an extreme, these two points of view are incompatible and untenable. (McAllister-Grande, 2008, p. 27). In the post-war era, educational and cultural affairs were part of the mission of many agencies and departments, including the Department of Health, State, Education, Welfare, and Defense. McAllister-Grande discusses the major legislation affecting international education in that period and argues that “the tone and goals of each act show further evidence of a kind of schizophrenic approach to international education" (2008, p. 21). The Fulbright Act of 1946 created a scholarship program for students and scholars to study and research abroad with the main goal of furthering mutual understanding through cultural exchange. In contrast, the Smith- Mundt Act of 1948, in a more unilateral approach, placed emphasis of the promotion of the American image abroad through the radio program Voice of America. The National Defense Education Act of 1958, although meant to provide support for a revised international studies curriculum, was suspected to be motivated by the Soviet launch of Sputnik rather than concern with educational cooperation. The next important Act in the post-WWII legislation was an expansion of the original Fulbright Act, the Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961, which was created to "promote international cooperation for educational and cultural advancement, and thus to assist in the development of friendly, sympathetic, and peaceful relations between the United States and the other countries of the world." (McAllister-Grande, 2008, p. 22). Sylvester (2003, 2005) takes a long historical view from 1946–1998 and points to the lack of a clear definition and mapping of this field. In tracing the roots of international education, Sylvester mentions an early author, Wright, who in 1955 already reflected both on the complexity of a definition and the overlapping connotations of the term "international education." Wright defined it as "a branch of the general discipline of education, which merges into the related discipline of international communications, both having roots in psychology, sociology, and ethics of international relations" (Wright 1955, p.307). The multiple connotations of the term, such as education for internationalism, education in the discipline of international relations, education through international contacts, and education for international service allow different approaches to the field: propagandistic, informational, methodological and practical respectively (Wright, 1955; Sylvester, 2003). Stephen Duggan, Sr. (1943), one of the founders of Institute of International Education, believed that international student and scholar exchanges should serve only the neutral cause of international understanding and human welfare. However, Becker (1969) notes several layers of tension exist between a politically neutral view of education and another view driven by political considerations. Contemporary higher education researchers, including De Wit (2002) and 33 The Role of Study Abroad Students in Cultural Diplomacy Altbach (2004), also emphasize the political objectives of the U.S. government during the post- war period and its desire as a superpower for dominance over other countries. Akli These opposed perspectives of, "maintaining an education rooted in the intellectual territory of the nation-state," and the "competing impulse to view the world as a single entity" (Sylvester 2003, p. 128) that is, between a narrow politicized international education and a broad humanistic approach to it, coexisted until the end of the century. The first approach is represented by Coombs (1964), the first Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs. His rationale was that education and culture are the fourth dimension of foreign affairs, along with military strength, aid to the economic development of Asia, Africa, and Latin America and the liquidation of communism in China and the Soviet Union. Coombs saw education as essential for ending the cold war "on terms favorable to the interests of the United States and other democratic nations." (1964, p. 113). He believed that extensive educational and cultural exchanges could exert “real influence" on visitors from the Soviet Union to abandon their loyalty to communism, could contribute substantially to the objectives of U.S. foreign policy and promote American values, aims, and interests abroad. Use of the unilateralist semantics of American aims, interests and influence continued to strengthen the association of educational activities with foreign policy during the cold war and beyond. For example, the Boren National Security Education Act (1991) emphasized the role of American students abroad in contributing to U.S. national security and economic well-being. More recently, Nye refreshed the link between international education and foreign policy, when he asserted that higher education (along with other forms of culture, such as government broadcasting and Hollywood products) represents a soft power tool, which America can use "to affect others and to obtain preferred outcomes by persuasion and positive attraction” (2004, p. 6). Although he points out that this soft power strategy is opposed to propaganda, which had nourished suspicion about the intent of exchange programs during the cold war period, his readers are again prisoners of the unilateralist semantics of a one sided benefit: using attraction, seduction, and persuasion, Americans can obtain the outcomes they want from other people. He encourages a soft behavior, which in fact conceals the promotion of national interests. Therefore, power is still at the center of the relationship with others and narrow national interests are being defended, but in a more subtle way. The second approach to the objectives of international education advocates for distancing it from the influence of national government institutions and firmly linking it to the betterment of the human community. This correlation between education and humanistic values of peace and mutual understanding rather than purely political and economical arrangements of governments is emphasized in the UNESCO constitution of 1945: That the wide diffusion of culture, and the education of humanity for justice and liberty and peace are indispensable to the dignity of man and constitute a sacred duty which all the nations must fulfill in a spirit of mutual assistance and concern... That a peace based exclusively upon the political and economic arrangements of governments would not be a peace which could secure the unanimous, lasting and sincere support of the peoples of the 34 The Role of Study Abroad Students in Cultural Diplomacy world, and that the peace must therefore be founded, if it is not to fail, upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind… For these reasons, the State Parties to this constitution, believing in full and equal opportunities for education for all, in the unrestricted pursuit of objective truth, and the free exchange of ideas and knowledge, are agreed and determined to develop and to increase the means of communication between their peoples and to employ these means for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other's lives." (UNESCO Constitution, 1945). Sylvester (2005) recalls multiple researchers, mostly academics, who supported this direction: Leach (1969), Hanvey (1982), Heater (1990) and Mattern (1991). In his research on international schools, Leach called for highlighting “the essential unit of mankind and the embracement of the oneness of the human family” (1969, p. 13). He saw in the development of international schools at that time a shift from the era of the dominance of the nation state towards the age of the unity of mankind. In the same vein, Hanvey put forward a conceptual model of education for a global perspective, which "enhances the individual's ability to understand his or her condition in the community and the world and improve the ability to make effective judgments (...). It provides the individual with a realistic perspective on world issues, problems and prospects, and an awareness of the relationships between an individual's enlightened self- interest and the concerns of people elsewhere in the world" (Hanvey, 1982, p. 1, cited in Sylvester, 2005, p. 137). Heater (1990) and Mattern (1991) also adopted this humanistic approach in their call for an education for world citizenship focused upon universal values rather than national interests. In the same vein, Nussbaum (1997) encourages us to cultivate our own notion of humanity. Drawing upon the branch of philosophy called stoicism, she argues that we should recognize humanity and its fundamental characteristics, reason and moral capacity, wherever they occur and "give that community of humanity our first allegiance,” (p. 59). The basic point of view of stoicism is that we should maintain a distance from all forms of government and temporal power and become members of the moral community of all human beings. Nussbaum endorses Cicero's philosophy of placing justice above political expediency, understanding that we form part of a universal community of humanity that shares the moral ends of justice and human well-being. This reflects the Stoics' vision of human beings as surrounded by a series of concentric circles, expanding from self, to family, local group, fellow city-dwellers and fellow countrymen, culminating in an overarching human unity: Akli Beyond all these circles is the largest one, that of a humanity as a whole. Our task as citizens of the world will be to draw the circles somehow toward the center, making all human beings like our fellow city-dwellers (...) We need not give up special affections and identifications whether national or ethnic or religious, but we should work to make all human beings part of our community of dialogue and concern, showing respect for the human wherever it occurs, and allowing that respect to constrain our national and local politics" (Nussbaum, 1997, p. 60). 35 The Role of Study Abroad Students in Cultural Diplomacy Akli More recently, Slimbach (2010) emphasized the cultural, psychological, and spiritual aspects of international education: "at its center is the intentional crossing of borders of difference in order to understand another's reality from their point of view (...) we cross the border from personal identity to mutuality. We enter the world of another to listen, to hear, and to receive. We walk a while in their mind and emotions. We try to believe, feel and think as they do" (2010, p. 219). Education is a vehicle for humanism and takes into consideration both human flourishing and the welfare of the planet. When evaluating study abroad's impact on students, Slimbach defends the humanistic goals of international education when he claims that “becoming world- wise supports us in the task of rebuilding a common home, metaphorically speaking, with distant others. Although we may inhabit different geographies, cultures, families, and political systems, we are increasingly bound together by a single faith and a shared humanity” (2010, p. 7). He concludes that study-abroad students need to develop a humanistic conscience that goes beyond learning about the world. “Global learning must be not only in the world but also for it. Educational travel should leave the world a saner, stronger and more sustainable place" (p. 9). International Education and Cultural Diplomacy: A Restatement of Purposes Charles Frankel, an assistant secretary of state for educational and cultural affairs from 1965 to 1967, refocused the debate on international education and restated its purpose. His restatement reconciles the two opposing approaches presented above, and although it dates from 1965, could be used as a point of reference for reflection in contemporary discourse on international education programs. First, he positioned the educational and cultural relations among peoples in a larger context that includes political, commercial and military relationships. Cultural and educational exchanges are thus the product of continuing contact between nations, and consequently "the purpose of the advancement of scholarly, educational and cultural objectives cannot be pursued in a vacuum" (1965, p. 97). Thus, Frankel observed that that “economic development cannot be viewed as a self-sustaining thing in itself, as it depends on the existence or emergence of appropriate educational and cultural conditions" (p. 69). Moreover, cultural and educational objectives cannot be evaluated based on immediate results but over a much longer range of time. In restating the philosophy of international education as a field distanced from political justification, Frankel emphasized that political institutions depend not only on their performance but on their symbolic legitimacy as well. Therefore, he brought education to the center of attention and pushed foreign policy to the periphery. He turned the relationship of dependence upside down by clarifying that educational exchanges provide symbolic legitimacy and increase sympathy abroad. Foreign policy needs this legitimacy and sympathy, especially among intellectuals, without which "it become more costly and more dependent on violence if it loses the understanding of intellectuals in other countries and in its own” (p. 76). 36/n Please see the RUBRIC attached and get back to me if you have a question. Assignment 1 (task/s). Presentation in the class (3 minutes time) as communicated. Submission guidelines. List of files to be submitted: 1) Instructions 2) 3) a. b. COMM 2311: Oral Communication. Fall 2023 Assignment 1 (individual): Informative Speech (10% of Grade). Please click the links above for details. Due As communicated in the class. Late assignments will receive a ZERO grade. Please see me after class if you are interested in receiving four bonus points. Muhammad Siraj Khan. mkhan2@pmu.edu,sa C. d. Audience Centered Presentations in class For this assignment, please choose one of the following topics to work on this assignment: Option 1: The Role of Study-Abroad Students in Cultural Diplomacy: Toward an International Education as Soft Action. Reflection paragraph (Illustrate your understanding after reading the article. Write on the topic, 250 to 300 words in length (in class task) Useful links: PPT (comprising text, images, video, sounds and charts etc). Video of your presentation (3 minutes). No Audio presentation please. International education? What do you understand by studying abroad? Who are Student cultural ambassadors? What is cultural diplomacy? Soft action? e. f. Difference between international education and studying in your own country Option 2: Cross-Cultural Communication What is Cross-Cultural Communication? Informative Speech Example Youtube.com/watch-StPSgqwCnVk Informative Speech- Importance of Sleep https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZc4n8Bwa7A Informative Speech Outline https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8CE47GTXt8&t=88s Informative Speech Organization https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EJrK2U4N30 Audience Centered Presentation youtube.com/watch= 7hSh6m3D M Audience-Centered Communication | CH https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_RiBusx-QI Knowing Your Audience https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9A80QdJPR9U World Economic Forum (WEF)| The Annual Meetings https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d1GageWleWE Era of Discovery (1984) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHh6wY2ua08&t=223s Informative vs Persuasive https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=85gg_pgij4l How to Deliver A Group Presentation Successfully - TOP 5 Tips https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LzdZHS3YJz4 How to introduce the next speaker in a group presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6Xa1fq-oPo&t=23s What is Cross Cultural Communication? https://youtube.com/watch?v=nT3Adjs3rGM Why Study Abroad? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Re0K9T9MsRU The Student World - Why Study Abroad? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YpSevLQ53vc Go international: How studying abroad can change your life | Alexander Au | TEDxHumboldtMexico City https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BcaB4Piecu Cultural Diplomacy Studies - The Center for Cultural Diplomacy Studies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=krAUzn4MJ34 What Is Cultural Diplomacy? KL, Melay https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=in0nWIQYiqo Aigerim Raimzhanova (Presentations on Cultural Diplomacy & International Relations). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H7jjYlapUBg Introduction to cultural relations and cultural diplomacy. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RexhhvpoC5w&t=166s See below the example topics for Informative Speech: 1. Teacher survey: Learning loss is global-and significant 2. The World Economic Forum (WEF) Annual Meetings 3. King Abdulaziz Center for World Culture - Ithra 4. The mental effort that intelligent writing necessitates 5. Taking depression seriously. 6. Technology and healthcare. 7. Impact of food consumption on health. 8. Psychological disorders: causes and impact. 9. Treatment of chronic ailments. 10. Importance of a balanced diet. 11. Advantages and disadvantages of home remedies. 12. Importance of sleep. 13. Differences in non-verbal communication in different cultures. 14. Insomnia and its causes: Blowing the cover off the old mystery. 15. Sleepwalking: Myths and prejudices. 16. Things people never knew about space 17. Recent discoveries about neutrinos: Travel at the speed of light. 18. Unknown inventors: Chester Carlson and his Xerox machine. 19. In the light of recent fuel issues: Storage of solar energy. 20. Newest methods of child upbringing: Success and failure. Reading Task: Chapter 1: Foundations of Human Communication Chapter 11: Developing Your Presentation Chapter 12: Organizing and Outlining Your Presentation Chapter 13: Delivering Your Presentation Chapter 14: Speaking to Inform Important. Submit your work individually. Present your work in the class as a group to save time. You can work in-groups to exchange ideas. Names of the group members will be announced in the class. Please check blackboard for details and feel free to contact me during/after class if you have a question. The following piece of information must appear on the first page, the cover slide of your assignments and also you should say the details when you start your presentation for assignments: Course NAME Semester and year... Instructor's name Section XXX Names: IDs: Thank you. Study well and good luck! Muhammad Siraj khan. mkhan2@pmu.edu.sa Read More and Write Better. Read, read, read, read, and READ! "If you don't have time to read, you don't have the time (or the tools) to write. Simple as that." Stephen King. "A reader lives a thousand lives before he dies, said Johan. The man who never reads lives only one." George R.R. Martin, Education begins a gentleman, conversation completes him. Dr. Thomas Fuller, Gnomologia, 1732. British physician (1654 - 1734).