SUBMIT - A literature review paper (summarizing the 10

Question

SUBMIT - A literature review paper (summarizing the 10 sources you cite into 2-4 topics and discussing ACROSS sources as you explain what you have learned about your topic.

TutorBin · Accepted Answer

Introduction

In many developed and emerging nations, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death. Among the causes of death in the United States in 2005, cardiovascular disease accounted for 35.3% (Eshah et al 2010). Although there are many potential causes of cardiovascular disease, including emboli in a patient with atrial fibrillation leading to ischemic stroke and rheumatic fever leading to valvular heart disease, the prevention of atherosclerosis is the most important goal (Lopez et al 2022). Changing to a healthier way of life is a major role in lowering risk factors for coronary heart disease, which in turn reduces CHD-related mortality and disability. In a study on coronary heart disease, participants who had more information about the topic were more likely to make healthy lifestyle choices and complete their prescribed treatment plans. Consequently, health education has been backed by a number of experts who believe it can encourage people to make positive behavioural changes toward a more healthful way of living (Eshah et al 2010). As a result, the purpose of the study is to shed light on the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), followed by an in-depth examination of the factors that contribute to risk and an outline of prevention programmes.

Pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease

It is generally agreed that atherosclerosis is the primary contributor to heart disease and stroke. Frak et al. (2022) report that artherosclerosis is the pathogenic process in arteries and the aorta that can lead to disease due to inadequate or missing blood flow as a result of vascular stenosis. Endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, immunologic abnormalities, and dyslipidemia are all involved. It is hypothesised that these factors initiate the progressive process of atherosclerotic plaque formation, which can begin as early as childhood. It begins with a thickening of the intima, then the buildup of lipid-laden macrophages (foam cells) and extracellular matrix, and finally the aggregation and proliferation of smooth muscle cells that make up the atheroma plaque. Apoptosis of the deeper layers can occur as this lesion grows, leading to the recruitment of more macrophages, which can then calcify and transform into atherosclerotic plaques. The development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease can be slowed or sped up by other mechanisms, such as arterial remodelling and intra-plaque bleeding.

Risk factors of cardiovascular disease

Major risk factors for cardiovascular disease include hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking, obesity, and high levels of bad cholesterol (LDL). According to Leo and Maddox (2015), 30% and 60% of patients with T1DM and T2DM, respectively, suffer from hypertension. Hypertension is a major risk factor for the progression of diabetic nephropathy in patients with diabetes (DN). Untreated DN can lead to nephrotic syndrome, a condition characterised by proteinuria, a hypercoagulable state (due to loss of ATIII), and hyperlipidemia, all of which may contribute to the elevated risk of CVD found in diabetic individuals with renal impairment. Constantino et al (2016) highlighted age as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Environmental variables (smoking, pollution, lifestyle choices) have been highlighted for their impact on mitochondrial function, signalling pathways, endothelium homeostasis, and redox balance, all of which can lead to CVD. Pathogenic cardiac and vascular features may be predicted by early deregulation of genes associated in oxidative stress, insulin signalling, autophagy, and inflammation. This is why the authors have looked into the widespread signalling networks associated with ageing and described in detail the dynamic interplay between pathways such as AMPK, SIRT1, FOXOs, p66Shc, JunD, and NFkB signalling to identify promising molecular targets for future therapeutic treatment. Kondo et al. (2019) highlighted tobacco use as an important cardiovascular disease risk factor (CVD). Heart failure (HF), atrial fibrillation (AF), venous thromboembolism (VTE), and ischaemic cardiovascular disease (CVD) are all conditions that are more likely to develop and worsen in smokers, say the authors. Hospitalizations for HF are more common among smokers, and CVD, AF, and VTE are all caused by smoking. Furthermore, the use of tobacco products is associated with an increased probability of developing hypertension, coronary plaque rupture, and the onset of acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Carceto and Fonseca (2019) argue that obesity is an inflammatory state accompanied by high adipose tissue and decreased adiponectin levels, both of which reduce the hormone's ability to suppress inflammatory processes and so keep the condition perpetually active. The obesity-induced metabolic problems and vascular breakdown that results in cardiometabolic abnormalities are in part due to adipocyte dysregulations, which contribute to the imbalance of homeostasis and pro- and anti-inflammatory processes in the body. Furthermore, metabolic products produced from lipids, hormones, and proinflammatory cytokines lead to insulin resistance as well as endothelial dysfunction in the obese. Endothelial dysfunction is linked to cardiovascular diseases such atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, hypercholesterolemia, and insulin resistance, which disrupts the insulin signalling pathway. Bhargava et al. (2022) found that high plasma levels of LDL worsen CVD by encouraging the development of thrombus and plaque. Plaque formation in atherosclerosis is driven by both native LDL and its post-translationally oxidised counterpart, oxLDL. Atherosclerosis is exacerbated by oxLDL and LDL aggregates because they cause the arterial wall to release proinflammatory cytokines and growth factors. Further, oxLDL degrades vascular tone by reducing nitric oxide synthesis via endothelial nitric oxide synthase inhibition, and by producing asymmetric dimethylarginine via activation of S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methyltransferases. The oxidised forms of LDL and LDL, known as "foam cells," contribute to the development of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases.

Prevention interventions of cardiovascular disease

Community-based intervention for cardiovascular disease prevention and control is crucial in halting the development of CVD. The effects of an education, counselling, and behavioural skill-building programme on individuals' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs regarding cardiovascular disease (CVD) and adoption of a healthy lifestyle were studied by Eshah et al. (2010). A non-equivalent quasi-experimental approach was used to evaluate the efficacy of the intervention programme that is based on Pender's Health Promotion Model. The Response Questionnaire and the Health Beliefs and Practices Inventory II (HPLP-II) were used to examine the individuals' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs regarding healthy lifestyle choices. The results demonstrated that the intervention group had improved levels of knowledge, attitudes, and health responsibility in relation to cardiac issues. Therefore, it's important to support people's efforts to adopt healthy habits, and scientists need to develop and implement targeted interventions to address the elements that aren't being addressed by current programmes. The results of the pilot phase of CardioClick, a telemedicine primary CVD prevention programme, were studied by Kalwani et al. (2021). Patients who participated in the CardioClick programme showed improvements in CVD risk variables like blood pressure, lipid concentrations, and body mass index that were on par with or even better than those shown in the historical in-person group. So, it seems reasonable to draw the conclusion that telehealth can be used to efficiently deliver care in a preventative cardiology clinic context, and that this may lead to higher patient participation. The purpose of the study by Lim et al. (2021) was to empirically test a theoretical model of factors (selected demographic variables, knowledge of heart disease, health belief related to CVD, self-efficacy, cues to action, and screening intention) affecting health-promoting behaviour patterns among Malaysian university students. Students at Universiti Sains Malaysia were asked to participate in a cross-sectional survey by filling out anonymous, online questionnaires. Purposeful sampling was used to choose the participants. Mplus 7.3, a structural equation modelling application, was used to do an analysis of the presented hypothesised model. The study included 788 undergraduates, with a mean age of 20.2 (SD = 1.02) and a 70.7% female participation rate. Knowledge of heart disease, health attitudes linked to CVD, and health promoting lifestyle profiles-II were the questionnaires used to measure the primary outcomes of the study. Multiple fit indices (comparative fit index [CFI] =.921, standardised root mean square residual [SRMR] =.038, and root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] =.044 (90% CI =.032,.054)) indicated that the final hypothetical structural model provided a strong fit to the data. 13 meaningful path estimations were found in the final structural model. These factors accounted for 13% of the total variance in healthful routines. Increases in healthful actions were linked to total knowledge indirectly, via the perceived advantages of those actions. Screening intention, family history of cardiovascular disease, perceived hurdles, and anticipated rewards all have a role in whether or not young persons engage in healthful behaviours. Ndejjo et al. (2022) investigated the factors that influence the adoption of healthy lifestyle practises among adults in the aftermath of the implementation of a community cardiovascular disease prevention programme. In-depth interviews were used to acquire the data; the interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. According to the findings, some participants reported increasing their intake of vegetables and fruits, decreasing their salt intake, and increasing their consumption of healthy fats and oils, while others claimed the opposite. There were also noticeable shifts in levels of physical activity. Therefore, the study suggests that both individual factors, such as understanding and personal desire to change, and social factors, such as support networks from family and the wider community, play a role in the spread of behaviours.

Conclusion

The study covered topics such as cardiovascular disease's pathogenesis, risk factors, and preventative efforts. Thus, in a nutshell, according to the study, obesity is a major risk factor that contributes a lot to the development of diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease. Additionally, tobacco use is also an unavoidable risk factor of CVD. Thus, when it comes to CVD-related mortality and morbidity, however, a public health approach based on the adage "prevention is better than cure" would be the most effective model to employ. Therefore, preventative measures must be addressed as a whole, as numerous studies have found that a shift in lifestyle, including improved nutrition, more exercise, less weight gain, and giving up tobacco, can significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

References

Bhargava, S., de la Puente-Secades, S., Schurgers, L., & Jankowski, J. (2022). Lipids and lipoproteins in cardiovascular diseases: a classification. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism.

Cercato, C., & Fonseca, F. A. (2019). Cardiovascular risk and obesity. Diabetology & metabolic syndrome, 11(1), 1-15.

Costantino, S., Paneni, F., & Cosentino, F. (2016). Ageing, metabolism and cardiovascular disease. The Journal of physiology, 594(8), 2061-2073.

Eshah, N. F., Bond, A. E., & Froelicher, E. S. (2010). The effects of a cardiovascular disease prevention program on knowledge and adoption of a heart healthy lifestyle in Jordanian working adults. European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 9(4), 244-253.

Frąk, W., Wojtasińska, A., Lisińska, W., Młynarska, E., Franczyk, B., & Rysz, J. (2022). Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights into Molecular Mechanisms of Atherosclerosis, Arterial Hypertension, and Coronary Artery Disease. Biomedicines, 10(8), 1938.

Kalwani, N. M., Johnson, A. N., Parameswaran, V., Dash, R., & Rodriguez, F. (2021). Initial outcomes of CardioClick, a telehealth program for preventive cardiac care: observational study. JMIR cardio, 5(2), e28246.

Kondo, T., Nakano, Y., Adachi, S., & Murohara, T. (2019). Effects of Tobacco Smoking on Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society, 83(10), 1980–1985

Leon, B. M., & Maddox, T. M. (2015). Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: epidemiology, biological mechanisms, treatment recommendations and future research. World journal of diabetes, 6(13), 1246.

Lim, B. C., Kueh, Y. C., Arifin, W. N., & Ng, K. H. (2021). Modelling knowledge, health beliefs, and health-promoting behaviours related to cardiovascular disease prevention among Malaysian university students. Plos one, 16(4), e0250627.

Lopez, E. O., Ballard, B. D., & Jan, A. (2021). Cardiovascular disease. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.

Ndejjo, R., Musinguzi, G., Nuwaha, F., Bastiaens, H., & Wanyenze, R. K. (2022). Understanding factors influencing uptake of healthy lifestyle practices among adults following a community cardiovascular disease prevention programme in Mukono and Buikwe districts in Uganda: A qualitative study. Plos one, 17(2), e0263867.

Get Instant Homework HelpOn Your Mobile

Get Instant Homework HelpOn Your Mobile

Get Instant Homework HelpOn Your Mobile